Reviewed by Jauhara Ferguson, Department of Sociology
Religion has become the scapegoat of the modern era- or at least Karen Armstrong thinks so. In her book, Fields of Blood: Religion and the History of Violence, Armstrong seeks to challenge the popular assumption that “religion is inherently violent.” Armstrong uses critical historical analysis to contextualize religion and violence, and ultimately argue that religion is more often than not the architect of peace and justice rather than violence. Instead, it is the co-opting of religion by political elites, government, and those with power that use the religious structures or reframe religious messages to achieve violent ends. /p>
Armstrong opens with an analysis of religion and conflict within premodern societies and early human civilizations. She argues that early social hierarchies developed out of the shift from hunter-gatherer to agrarian communities. The establishment of social hierarchies created inequalities in groups and helped to fuel conflict. This environment created the conditions through which militaries could form and people could fight in organized war. At the same time, early human civilization used religion to sacralize their authority over people, animals, and land. Armstrong describes the way that early communities engaged in “sacred violence” in religious rituals that involved things like animal sacrifice. In this way, early humans existentially contended with their own mortality and their complicity in the mortality of other creatures around them. Religion became the form to give meaning to this existence, while also establishing human authority in the world.
As human societies expanded and developed, religion became linked to politics as a way to legitimize political power. Religions began to spread to new regions of the world through empire. The spread of new religious ideas to different corners of the world created religious tension. Imperial rulers used religion to justify their spread of power and worked to impose their religion on newly conquered subjects. Armstrong argues that while Christianity initially developed as a response to the injustices carried out by the Roman Empire, as it spread among people it became entangled with imperial and colonial pursuits of political and economic power. Christianity and early Christians used their faith as a nonviolent resistance to the Roman empire focused on love and compassion. However, the adoption of Christianity by ruling empires allowed for Christianity to be used as a tool of conquest, conversion, and colonialism.
Similarly, Armstrong describes Islam as a spiritual resistance movement to the to the social and economic ills of pre-Islamic Arabia. Islam became a threat to Meccan tribal society because it encouraged submission to God through redistributing wealth, emphasizing the collective Muslim community (ummah) over tribal ties, and establishing a more socially equitable society. While the early Muslim community was initially non-violent, war in defense of justice became spiritually important and linked to the Islamic concept of “jihad” or spiritual struggle. After the death of the Prophet Muhammed, Islam spread rapidly across the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. Internal conflict over religious leadership led to intrareligious violence and schisms. Internal conflicts over power and land eventually led to fragmented Muslim empires across Central Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe.
Armstrong argues that the Spanish Inquisition of 1492 marked the transition into the modern period. Whereas early empires largely did not always interfere with the personal day-to-day lives of subjects, modern empires and colonial pursuits expected more religious and cultural uniformity of subjects. Religion was tied to increased state violence. Muslims and Jews in Spain, who initially lived together with Christians, were violently expelled during the Spanish Inquisition. Across Western Europe, Catholic monarchs and priests used religion to wield power and gain money at the expense of the poor. Growing in discontent for religious elites, Martin Luther notably advocated for Christian reform and independence of the state from religion because of the view that the Divine had no place in the material world. Armstrong argues that it is out of this context that European Enlightenment thinkers began to conceptualize how religion could be private and separate from state. While secularism ultimately had a great impact on the political development of the United States and Europe, Armstrong argues that it also allowed for nationalism to replace public religious fervor. She argues that much of the violence and conflict in modern history is not due to religious commitments, but rather to nationalist political aims, which can be secular or religious in their framing. While many people point to contemporary acts of terrorism as evidence of religious violence, Armstrong provides evidence that terrorism is most often a political issue. In particular, the Global South has been historically challenged with gross injustices that have been carried out in the name of modernity. Structural violence, be it physical, mental, or spiritual, has created a sociopolitical climate of hopelessness for some and creates conditions ripe for violent political responses in the guise of religious rhetoric.
Fields of Blood is a dense but comprehensive historical look at the relationship between religion and violence. Armstrong clearly outlines complex events and historical tensions in a way that is accessible to both academic and nonacademic readers alike. She gives much attention to detail in fully articulating her argument, and clearly makes a case for the consideration of the role of politics, social inequities, and economic pursuits in “religious” violence. While Armstrong provides much needed nuance for understanding this complex issue, she also at times seems to overstate her argument. While religion is not inherently violent and certainly not the only contribution to global conflict, religion can indeed be a central element of violent conflict. In the book, Armstrong sometimes seems to overlook the way religion is used to buttress conflict. While religious language may be coopted by individuals, groups, and state powers to ultimately drive more secular aims, religions, and more importantly religious people, also condone violence. Additionally, while much focus was centered on physical violence such as acts of terrorism or war, less attention was given to the potential for psychic and emotional violence, as well as harm within religious communities. Despite these critiques, Armstrong’s central message is a much-needed addition to the study of religion. She provides evidence-based proof to complicate assumptions on the violent nature of religion. Armstrong is also successful at arguing for a closer look at the role of secular nationalism in modern-day global conflict. While secularism is not always considered for its violent potential, Armstrong holds accountable the violent actions and aims of the secular state. More work should be done in this area. Overall, Fields of Blood is a valuable tool to better understand the nuanced relationship of religion and violence.